¿Los medios de comunicación persuaden políticamente a los ciudadanos? Un siglo de respuestas académicas
DOI:
https://doi.org/10.3145/infonomy.23.007Palabras clave:
Medios de comunicación, Persuasión política, Aguja hipodérmica, Bala mágica, Efectos limitados, Exposición selectiva, Flujo de comunicación en dos pasos, Teoría del cultivo, Espiral del silencio, Agenda setting, Priming, Framing, EncuadresResumen
Los medios de comunicación son una parte vital del proceso democrático, ya que ponen en contacto a la ciudadanía con las acciones de sus gobernantes y constituyen un foro de debate y formación de opiniones. Sin embargo, en muchas ocasiones se asume que las audiencias son una tabula rasa, indefensa ante el poder persuasivo/manipulativo casi absoluto de los medios. Pero la realidad de los efectos de los medios sobre el público es bastante más compleja. A lo largo de estas páginas se resumen los principales paradigmas y teorías científicas que han tratado de explicar este asunto en los últimos cien años. El repaso comienza con los inicios precientíficos de la disciplina en los años veinte del siglo pasado, cuando se consideraba a los medios como actores todopoderosos con capacidad de manipular a las masas a su antojo. Unas décadas más tarde, el campo daría un giro hacia el paradigma contrario, según el cual los medios tendrían una capacidad persuasiva mínima o al menos limitada. En los años sesenta, con la llegada de la televisión, los científicos sociales retomaron la idea (matizada) de los efectos fuertes, pero esta vez con un mayor respaldo teórico y empírico. Para terminar, se explica cómo todos los aportes de las últimas ocho décadas sirven para explicar los efectos persuasivos de los medios en la situación actual, caracterizada por unas audiencias fragmentadas, la omnipresencia de internet y las redes sociales y la eclosión de la inteligencia artificial.Citas
Ardèvol-Abreu, Alberto (2015). “Framing theory in communication research. Origin, development and current situation in Spain”. Revista latina de comunicación social, n. 70, pp. 423-450. https://nuevaepoca.revistalatinacs.org/index.php/revista/article/view/868
Ardèvol-Abreu, Alberto; Diehl, Trevor; Gil de Zúñiga, Homero (2018). “Building social capital. How the news and the strength of the ties in the political discussion foster reciprocity”. Revista internacional de sociología, v. 76, n. 1, e083. https://doi.org/10.3989/ris.2018.76.1.16.147
Ardévol-Abreu, Alberto; Gil de Zúñiga, Homero; McCombs, Maxwell E. (2020). “Origins and development of the agenda-setting theory in communication: trends in Spain (2014-2019)”. Profesional de la información, v. 29, n. 4, pp. 1699-2407. https://www.doi.org/10.3145/epi.2020.jul.14
Barnidge, Matthew; Ardèvol-Abreu, Alberto; Gil de Zúñiga, Homero (2018). “Content-expressive behavior and ideological extremity: An examination of the roles of emotional intelligence and information network heterogeneity”. New media & society, v. 20, n. 2, pp. 815-834. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444816675
Bennett, W. Lance; Segerberg, Alexandra (2012). “The logic of connective action: digital media and the personalization of contentious politics”. Information, communication & society, v. 15, n. 5, pp. 739-768. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2012.670661
Bond, Robert M.; Sweitzer, Matthew D. (2022). “Political homophily in a large-scale online communication network”. Communication Research, v. 49, n. 1, pp. 93-115. https://www.doi.org/10.1177/ 0093650218813655
Centeno-Martín, Héctor; Toledano-Buendía, Samuel; Ardèvol-Abreu, Alberto (2023). “¿Who interacts with communicative AI and what attitudes are displayed toward it? Sociodemographic, personality and futurephobia variables”. Profesional de la información, v. 32, n. 5, e320502. https://doi.org/10.3145/epi.2023.sep.02
Cohen, Bernard C. (1963). The press and foreign policy. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press. ISBN: 978 0 87 772 346 2
Diehl, Trevor; Weeks, Brian E.; Gil de Zúñiga, Homero (2016). “Political persuasion on social media: tracing direct and indirect effects of news use and social interaction”. New media & society, v. 18, n. 9, pp. 1875-1895. https://doi.org/10.1177/1461444815616224
Entman, Robert M. (1993). “Framing: toward clarification of a fractured paradigm”. Journal of communication, v. 43, n. 4, pp. 51-58. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00333.x
Festinger, Leon (1957). A theory of cognitive dissonance. Stanford, California: Stanford University Press. ISBN: 978 0 80 470 911 8
Gearhart, Sherice; Zhang, Weiwu (2015). “‘Was it something I said?’ ‘No, it was something you posted!’ A study of the spiral of silence theory in social media contexts”. Cyberpsychology, behavior, and social networking, v. 18, n. 4, pp. 208-213. https://doi.org/10.1089/cyber.2014.0443
Gerbner, George; Gross, Larry (1976). “The scary world of TV’s heavy viewer”. Psychology today, v. 9, n. 11, pp. 41-45.
Gil de Zúñiga, Homero; Ardèvol-Abreu, Alberto; Casero-Ripollés, Andreu (2021). “WhatsApp political discussion, conventional participation and activism: exploring direct, indirect and generational effects”. Information, communication & society, v. 24, n. 2, pp. 201-218. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369118X.2019.1642933
Gil de Zúñiga, Homero; Weeks, Brian; Ardèvol-Abreu, Alberto (2017). “Effects of the news-finds-me perception in communication: social media use implications for news seeking and learning about politics”. Journal of computer-mediated communication, v. 22, n. 3, pp. 105-123. https://doi.org/10.1111/jcc4.12185
Goyanes, Manuel; Ardèvol-Abreu, Alberto; Gil de Zúñiga, Homero (2023). “Antecedents of news avoidance: competing effects of political interest, news overload, trust in news media, and ‘news finds me’ perception”. Digital journalism, v. 11, n. 1. https://doi.org/10.1080/21670811.2021.1990097
Hermida, Alfred (2010). “From TV to Twitter: how ambient news became ambient journalism”. M/C journal, v. 13, n. 2. https://doi.org/10.5204/mcj.220
Heyer, Paul (2003). “America under attack I: a reassessment of Orson Welles’ 1938 War of the Worlds broadcast”. Canadian journal of communication, v. 28, n. 2, pp. 149-165.
Holbert, R. Lance; Garrett, R. Kelly; Gleason, Laurel S. (2010). “A new era of minimal effects? A response to Bennett and Iyengar”. Journal of communication, v. 60, n. 1, pp. 15-34. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2009.01470.x
International Telecommunication Union. (2022). World Telecommunication/ICT Indicators Database. https://www.itu.int/en/ITU-D/Statistics/Pages/publications/wtid.aspx
Iyengar, Shanto (2017). "A typology of media effects". In: Kenski, Kate; Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. The Oxford handbook of political communication. New York: Oxford University Press, pp. 59-68. ISBN: 978 0 19 979 347 1. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199793471.013.49
Iyengar, Shanto; Kinder, Donald R. (1987). News that matters: television and American opinion. Chicago, Illinois: University of Chicago Press. ISBN: 978 0 22 638 858 8
Katz, Elihu (1957). “The two-step flow of communication: an up-to-date report on an hypothesis”. Public opinion quarterly, v. 21, n. 1, pp. 61-78. https://doi.org/10.1086/266687
Krosnick, Jon A.; Kinder, Donald R. (1990). “Altering the foundations of support for the president through priming”. American political science review, v. 84, n. 2, pp. 497-512. https://doi.org/10.2307/1963531
Lasswell, Harold (1971). Propaganda technique in World War I. Cambridge, Massachusetts: MIT Press. ISBN: 978 0 26 262 018 5
Lazarsfeld, Paul F.; Berelson, Bernard; Gaudet, Hazel (2021). The people’s choice. How the voter makes up his mind in a presidential campaign. New York: Columbia University Press. ISBN: 978 0 23 119 795 3
Lee, Sangwon; Xenos, Michael (2019). “Social distraction? Social media use and political knowledge in two US Presidential elections”. Computers in human behavior, v. 90, pp. 18-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2018.08.006
Lule, Jack (2017). Understanding media and culture: an introduction to mass communication - version 2.0. Washington, DC: Flatworld. ISBN: 978 1 45 338 525 8
McCombs, Maxwell E.; Shaw, Donald L. (1972). “The agenda-setting function of mass media”. Public opinion quarterly, v. 36, n. 2, pp. 176-187. https://doi.org/10.1086/267990
Morgan, Michael (2009). "Cultivation analysis and media effects". In: Nabi, Robin L.; Oliver, Mary Beth. The Sage handbook of media processes and effects. Los Angeles, California: Sage, pp. 69-82. ISBN: 978 1 41 295 996 4
Romero, José-Manuel (2023). “Hechos probados. ¿Está descontrolada la ocupación? Ni un fenómeno frecuente ni en aumento”. El País, 9 de julio.
Saldaña, Magdalena; Ardèvol-Abreu, Alberto (2016). "From compelling arguments to compelling associations at the third level of agenda setting". In: Guo, Lei; McCombs, Maxwell E. The power of information networks: new directions for agenda setting. New York, NY: Routledge, pp. 104-118. ISBN: 978 1 138847750
Scheufele, Dietram A.; Moy, Patricia (2000). “Twenty-five years of the spiral of silence: a conceptual review and empirical outlook”. International journal of public opinion research, v. 12, n. 1, pp. 3-28. https://doi.org10.1093/ijpor/12.1.3
Schwartz, A. Brad (2015). Broadcast hysteria: Orson Welles’s War of the Worlds and the art of fake news. New York: Hill & Wang. ISBN: 978 0 80 903 164 1
Seel, Norbert M. (2011). "Persuasion and learning". In: Seel, Norbert M. Encyclopedia of the sciences of learning. Boston, Massachusetts: Springer, pp. 2600-2604. ISBN: 978 1 441914279
Severin, Werner J.; Tankard, James W. (1979). Communication theories. Origins, methods, uses. New York: Hastings House. ISBN: 978 0 80 381 275 8
Stein, Jan-Philipp; Krause, Elena; Ohler, Peter (2021). “Every (Insta)Gram counts? Applying cultivation theory to explore the effects of Instagram on young users’ body image”. Psychology of popular media, v. 10, n. 1, pp. 87-97. https://doi.org/10.1037/ppm0000268
Stroud, Natalie-Jomini (2018). "Selective exposure theories". In: Kenski, Kate; Jamieson, Kathleen Hall. The Oxford handbook of political communication. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 531-548. ISBN: 978 0 19 998 435 0. https://doi.org/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780199793471.013.009_update_001
Scheufele, Dietram A. (2000). “Agenda-setting, priming, and framing revisited: Another look at cognitive effects of political communication”. Mass communication & society, v. 3, n. 2-3, pp. 297-316. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15327825MCS0323_07
Scheufele, Dietram A.; Tewksbury, David (2007). “Framing, agenda setting, and priming: the evolution of three media effects models”. Journal of communication, v. 57, n. 1, pp. 9-20. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1460-2466.2006.00326.x
The New York Times (1938). “Radio listeners in panic, taking war drama as fact”. The New York Times, 31 October. https://www.nytimes.com/1938/10/31/archives/radio-listeners-in-panic-taking-war-drama-as-fact-many-flee-homes.html
Weeks, Brian E.; Ardèvol-Abreu, Alberto; Gil de Zúñiga, Homero (2017). “Online influence? Social media use, opinion leadership, and political persuasion”. International journal of public opinion research, v. 29, n. 2, pp. 214-239. https://doi.org/10.1093/ijpor/edv050
Descargas
Publicado
Cómo citar
Descargas
Dimensions
Número
Sección
Licencia
Derechos de autor 2023 Infonomy
Esta obra está bajo una licencia internacional Creative Commons Atribución 4.0.